PLAYING THE PONIES: IDEAS FOR USING HORSES IN YOUR MIDDLE-EARTH CAMPAIGN

Bernie Roessler: 3907 S Woodland St, Visalia, CA 93277-8048, USA ([email protected])

©1997 Bernie Roessler; first published in Other Hands 18.

Horses and ponies play an important role both in Tolkien's legendarium and in fantasy role playing in general. Unfortunately, they are too often treated as little more than four-footed motorcycles which transport characters from place to place, and are otherwise ignored. This is, I believe, a reflection of the age of the internal combustion engine that we live in, where direct experience of horses is becoming less and less common. To some extent, even in The Hobbit, the Dwarves' and Bilbo's ponies were portrayed in this manner (not to mention winding up as Orc or dragon-chow). In The Lord of the Rings, however, every horse or pony used by a major character is given a name and usually a description.

This article is an attempt to assist gamers in using horses both more realistically and in a spirit closer to that which Tolkien manifested in The Lord of the Rings. (I too have scarcely more personal experience with horses than with actual sword-fighting, and would welcome comments from any real riders.) I have at times used the word "horse" in the generic sense of any domestic member of the equine family: horses, ponies, donkeys, hinnies and mules.

I wish to make clear that despite the footnotes, this article was not meant to be scholarly in the same vein as were the essays of Michael Martinez and Lalaith (OH 15/16). There was little conjecture in their articles and where it occurred it was plainly stated. My article, on the other hand, while it does not anywhere to my knowledge contradict Tolkien, contains some statements which are elaborations on my part. For example, nowhere did Tolkien write that the Dwarves were the first to use ponies and mules as pack animals. I have made that assumption on my own because it seemed reasonable to me given the circumstances and Dwarven nature. I certainly, just like the Fourth Age Gondorian scholars I mention, could be in error.

A SHORT HISTORY OF HORSES IN MIDDLE-EARTH

Horses, as all life in Middle-earth, were created by Eru through the Valar, especially Yavanna. After the fall of the Lamps, The Valar retreated to Valinor, but Yavanna preserved the life of Middle-earth by laying a "sleep" upon it.

The corruption of Melkor unfortunately tainted all of Arda to a greater or lesser degree. Valinor was one area where Melkor's corruptiveness had little effect; thus, life there was closer to the original thought of Eru than in Middle-earth.1 Horses were no exception to this. The quality of the horses in Valinor was thereby higher than that of the "native" horses of Endor. A stock of Valinorean horses (errych, sing. arroch) were brought to Middle-earth on the ships stolen by Fëanor and his sons. A portion of these horses were later given to the other Noldor, during the initial improved relations that existed between the Sons of Fëanor and their relatives after Fëanor's death. These horses formed the core of the Noldorin cavalry, which played an important (yet still under-recognized) role in the battles in Beleriand.

Still, there were never enough of the pure Valinorean horses to meet all their needs, so the Noldor cross-bred their stallions with common mares captured locally. This mixed strain (pererrych, sing. perarroch) was still far superior to any horse possessed by anyone else at the time. This fact, combined with the Noldor's remarkable riding skill, was so decisive that Morgoth never even attempted to field a cavalry force of his own. Instead he used warg-riding Orcs (and, of course, Glaurung) to counter the Elven riders. After the First Age ended, an attempt was made to retain a pure Valinorean bloodline. Although this was largely successful, there was (as with everything else in Middle-earth) a gradual diminishing of power and quality among these pure-bred Elven horses. So, while some errych (like Glorfindel's Third Age steed Asfaloth) were of excellent quality, even they could not match the power of those first Elven horses.

When the Edain became allied with the Noldor, they too most likely acquired Elven horses from their patrons. Some of these pererrych (and perhaps a few errych) were taken to Númenor with the Edain where they all became prized possessions of their masters. Legends tell that the bond between the Númenórean riders and their horses was so strong that the animals could respond to their master's mere thought.2 This certainly sounds like an arrochren trait to me. Despite having such superlative mounts, the Númenóreans always relied primarily on naval might, and therefore never fielded large cavalry forces of their own. They quite often used local auxiliaries for cavalry support of their armies, which were always based on heavy infantry with an abundance of archers.3 Meanwhile, back in Middle-earth east of the Blue Mountains, use of horse-kinds remained at a very basic level at the beginning of the Second Age. All the indigenous horse-kinds in these areas were originally wild, of course, and would have been unfit for the duties which their descendants would later perform until they had been improved by selective breeding. Most Avarin Elves preferred to dwell in heavily wooded areas (of which there was a greater abundance in the Elder Days than in later ages). Use of horses would have been limited in such an environment, but the general idea of using horses for mounts would have been familiar to them (if for no other reason, because of their knowledge of Oromë).

It was the ingenious Dwarves, however, who, in their mining activities, first used ponies for pack animals. They later were able to develop a pony strong enough to ride. They were also the first to recognize the advantages of mules. Still, there was little long-distance trade east of Beleriand in this early period except by water routes, and therefore little incentive to build roads. This made travel through the immense woods of the First Age difficult on horse or ponyback. Therefore, development of a strong native riding animal progressed only slowly in the interior of Middle-earth. However, as some of the Elves of Beleriand (especially the Noldor) migrated eastward, they naturally brought a few of their superior stock of horses with them. Mannish populations also remained low at the dawn of the Second Age. With so much bountiful land available, there was little need for Mannish tribes to eke out a living on the semi-arid steppes. Because of this, in my opinion, the development of nomadic horse-peoples of any significance did not occur until at least the mid-Second Age.4 In any case, the Easterling horse-tribes, never yet even having encountered the Númenóreans, lacked the desire to join with Sauron in an attack upon them or the realms of the Eldar in the West in his Eriadorian war (S.A.1690ff). As the Númenóreans later expanded their enclaves and became oppressive, Sauron was more successful in recruiting Men of the East and South to his service, and the Easterlings, now grown in size, provided him with an important cavalry contingent, especially in the War of the Last Alliance. In that war, however, the Easterling horsemen met other cavalry who were more than their match in combat.

These riders were not only the Noldor of Lindon, but also Northmen from both Eriador and Northern Rhovanion.5 During the course of the Second Age, both these groups had acquired pererrych. For the Northmen of Eriador, how this occurred is not difficult to follow. They dwelt in the area from the Baranduin and Nenuial, across the North Downs to the Weather Hills. This region was excellent horse country; much less wooded than the lands further south, even before the coming of the Númenóreans and their axes. These Northmen were closely related to the Edain, and were friendly with the Elves from early in the age.6 They would have observed and learned Elven cavalry techniques, and possessed such technical advances as iron weapons and the stirrup, long before other Mannish horsemen. They also acquired from the Elves superior breeding stock in the form of pererrych. These horses may have been a gift from the Elves for assisting them in the war against Sauron. By that time, these same Northmen had also re-established contact with their long lost relatives, the Númenóreans, and could have received superior horses from them as well.

In Other Hands 15/16, both Michael Martinez and Lalaith note that these Eriadorian Northmen "disappear from recorded history" after Sauron's invasion. While this is true, I also feel that given the small amount of material that Tolkien wrote regarding the region during this time period, it is not necessary to assume all the Northmen left the area or ceased to exist. I find it more likely that they retreated beyond the Lhûn with the Elves. Later many were absorbed into the expanding Númenórean enclaves. Other, more independent factions, retained more of their Northmen cultural identity (at least until the end of the age) and served as some of the local auxiliaries previously mentioned. Such auxiliaries would have been especially useful during the War of the Last Alliance.

For the Northmen of Rhovanion, exactly how they have acquired pererrych is more problematic. That at least some of them did so is, however, without a doubt, for it is from these Northmen that the Rohirrim descended. Gandalf himself testified about the quality of the horses of Rohan.7 I offer then the following possibilities of where the Rohirric pererrych could have originated.

The first possibility is that the ancestors of the Rohirrim cross bred common horses with mearas. The problem with this theory is that there is no evidence that any mearh had been tamed before Eorl did so in Third Age 2501. Of course, it is possible for such breeding to have occurred without the mearh stallion being tamed, but this seems, given the proud nature of the mearas, to be unlikely to me.

The second possibility, is that after the War of the Last Alliance, the Easterling horse-tribes, like all of Sauron's armies, were utterly defeated. The wide plains stretching north of Mordor all the way to the Iron Hills were practically uninhabited ( or at least undefended). Northmen cavalry auxiliaries from Eriador, seeking independence from direct Dúnadan suzerainty may have joined their newly acquainted Rhovanion cousins at this time, and helped settle these newly "conquered" lands. These groups eventually developed into what we know as the Ehwathrumi.8

 Another possibility involves the Alliance of Dwarves and Men, that existed in the Anduin Vale during the Second Age.9 During the time of this Alliance, the Dwarves of Moria also enjoyed a close friendship with the Noldor of Eregion.10

 The Men of the Alliance could have been given pererrych by the Noldor at that time, or by Galadriel and Amroth after they arrived in Lórinand. Later, when Sauron took his revenge on the Men of this Alliance, survivors could have fled to areas north and east of Mirkwood and became the ancestors of the Ehwathrumi. (The survivors that remained in the area, hidden in the forest and caves could quite likely have been the ancestors of the Woodmen and Beornings). Finally, Michael Martinez, in his aforementioned article, speculates that the Northmen of Eriador may have moved to the Anduin Vale to escape Sauron's invasion. If so, they would have had to flee soon again to escape the revenge I just mentioned. Perhaps they then joined their eastern cousins.

The Ehwathrumi and their descendants were not the only branch of their people to make good use of horses. For among the Northmen, the relationship that existed between the bear-clans and their horses was even more extraordinary. The bear-clans later became known finally as the Beornings.11 Rather than using their horses as war-mounts, the Beornings had at least some horses and ponies (and other animals) that they were able to use as domestic servants.12 In The Hobbit, for example, Beorn's horses, "sleek and well groomed...with intelligent faces," can communicate with him, notifying him of Bilbo's and Gandalf's approach.13

 With the help of his dogs and sheep (!), these ponies set a table. Clearly, this behavior indicates more than just superior breeding and training. This closeness with animals is, of course, understandable, since Beorn could become an animal himself, but there is also a "magic" of some sort at work here, I believe. I also tend to think that ownership of animals of this intelligence, like the skin-changing abilities, was probably limited to the chieftains of the bear-clan, and thus rare. Therefore, while Beorn was willing to let Thorin and Company use his ponies for a short time, he never let them out of his sight. How Beorn and his ancestors acquired these animals and abilities is unknown. But it is interesting that all the lords of the Northmen mentioned by Tolkien had unique gifts for dealing with animals: The mearas would bear no one but those of the line of Eorl; and remember Bard's surprise at Lake-town when he was able to understand the thrush. My guess is that these animals or abilities were all gifts of Oromë.

Let us move on now to another culture whose use of horses reached a high level: the Haradrim. The deserts of the South, even more than the eastern steppes, were little-inhabited. The exceptions to this were fertile areas (such as the peninsula of Umbar) which became dominated by the Númenóreans in the late Second Age (c. 2000ff). The Númenóreans would have brought their excellent horses to Umbar, some of which in time would have been acquired by local Southron tribes. Bred with the already good local stock, these developed into the fine Haradic breed of horses which the Southron cavalry used in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields (among others). One may still consider these Haradic horses as pererrych, though their quality, while excellent, was still less than that of the northern breeds.

Almost all of the original Númenórean horses in Umbar were taken by the King's Men for use in the Great Armament of Ar-Pharazôn. Their loss gave the Faithful a definite cavalry advantage over the surviving King's Men in Middle-earth, even without the Northmen. This forced the King's Men to rely almost entirely on their Southron allies for cavalry support. Naturally, many of the Faithful's horses were also brought from Númenor, but being friendly with the Elves, the Faithful had the opportunity to acquire additional high quality pererrych and again even errych until the end of the Third Age. Aragorn's meeting with his Dúnadan comrades from the North is a good illustration of this, since it is from Rivendell that they bring Aragorn's own horse, Roheryn.14 It might seem odd that this group of experienced Rangers and the sons of Elrond the Wise would bring a horse with them to Rohan—which means Horse-land! Later in the chapter we learn that they knew what they were doing after all. First, Aragorn gladly gives up his Rohirric horse for Roheryn. Then, when the group is entering the Paths of the Dead, only the Rohirric horse shies from entering until calmed by Legolas.15 These horses of the Dúnedain, despite their somewhat shaggy appearance, were most likely almost pure-bred errych. Horses such as these were probably not common either in the North or in Gondor, but these Men were remnants of the royalty of Arnor and personally known to Elrond.

Another well-known example of high quality horses and riders in Middle-earth is found in the knights of Dol Amroth. The lords of this area also had a close relationship with the Elves at one time. After all, one of their princes even married an Elf-woman. I can easily imagine Elves journeying to Edhellond to set sail to the West, leaving their horses behind with the friendly Dúnedain.

Whose was the superior cavalry, that of Dol Amroth or Rohan? I think the best answer to this is to say that the knights of Dol Amroth were a small elite group of heavy cavalry whose purpose was to support an army consisting mostly of infantry. The Muster of Rohan on the other hand, provided a force of 12,000 or more horsemen. This mounted army was mostly composed of medium cavalry with light cavalry and horse-archer support. One of the great strengths of this army was the speed with which it could travel: approximately eighty miles per day (more than three times the rate of an infantry army).16

 ELVEN RIDING STYLES

I would like at this point to note a seeming contradiction involving Elven riding styles as described in The Lord of the Rings. Much is made of how Legolas asks that the saddle and reins be taken off the horse Arod when it is presented to him by Éomer. Legolas then mounts the horse and controls it by spoken word alone, much to the amazement of the Rohirrim.17 In contrast to this, the Elven-lord Glorfindel uses a saddle and stirrups on his horse Asfaloth.18 What shall we make of this? Is Legolas a better rider than Glorfindel?

Not at all. Glorfindel, in all likelihood, could ride bareback the same as Legolas if he wished. The difference can be explained by what the two Elves did on their horses. Legolas, though he certainly did a considerable amount of traveling by horseback in the story, is never described as fighting while mounted. This is not surprising for an Elf of Mirkwood. His primary weapon was a long bow, which would be very difficult, if not impossible, to shoot from horseback. His long knife would also be of little use on a horse. Legolas is not included in the initial charge of riders from the Hornburg at Helm's Deep, though he soon rides up to gaze at the mysterious wood of Huorns.19

 Glorfindel, on the other hand, was a true mounted warrior with the weapons and equipment to match. This too is not

surprising, considering the long cavalry tradition of the Noldor. The saddle and stirrups gave him extra support needed to remain firmly on his horse when absorbing the severe shock of contact that occurs when weapon meets target at high speed. It seems then that at least some Elves such as Legolas preferred to ride bareback if all they were doing was traveling. When an Elf engaged in melee combat from horseback however, he was wise to use the extra tack as did Glorfindel.

WHAT ARE THE MEARAS?

We all know that Shadowfax was the greatest horse alive during the time of the War of the Ring. And we know that Shadowfax was one of the mearas. However, I cannot determine with absolute certainty what Tolkien meant by the term. Why the confusion, you may ask? Appendix A clearly indicates that the mearas were descendants of Eorl's horse, Felaróf, and would bear no one but the King of the Mark.20 True, this is the generally accepted definition; but there are some difficulties. Twice Shadowfax is referred to as chief of the mearas.21 My question, then, is: where are the rest? As Christopher Tolkien points out, mearas is the Old English word for horses.22 Old English is the language Tolkien used to represent the language of the Rohirrim.23

 Could mearas simply be a term used for all the horses of Rohan with Shadowfax being, of course, their chief? Possibly, but I think that this is not enough evidence to overturn the statement made in Appendix A. The authors of ICE's Creatures of Middle-earth (1st edition) attempt to answer the question of the missing mearas by depicting Théoden's horse Snowmane as one of them. There are two problems with this. First, Théoden used a saddle on Snowmane, while neither Gandalf nor Eorl put a saddle on their respective steeds. Again, this could be explained by what the individuals did on the horses, and it's true that Gandalf seems to have only used spells while in mounted combat on Shadowfax. I doubt very much, however, that Eorl the Young did not engage in melee combat while riding Felaróf. Mearas are superior to even purebred Elven horses, possessed of an intelligence perhaps on the same level as the great eagles. It's highly probable that, in this single case, no saddle would be needed or desired by one of the mearas in order for the rider to engage in melee combat. As Gandalf stated, if one of the mearas consents to let you ride it, it assumes the responsibility of ensuring that you remain on its back.24 Finally, if Snowmane were truly of the mearas, I hardly think this would escape mention somewhere in the books.

I believe the ICE authors have made a honest error, however. In the Fourth Age, Snowmane's mound became the center point for commemorations of the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. Gondorian poets naturally assumed that the horse of the King of the Mark that was buried there in honor was one of the mearas, which soon became widely believed. This leads me to suspect that the ICE authors derived the section on horses from late Third or Fourth Age Gondorian sources. For example, they also describe Elven horses as being descendants of Oromë's mount Nahar. This parallels the Rohirric legend of the origins of the mearas. Despite King Elessar's attempts to restore lost knowledge, by that time much of what was known in Gondor of the Eldar Days had been forgotten. The fact that Elven horses were brought to Middle-earth by Fëanor was probably not generally known. The Gondorian scholars therefore quite possibly simply deferred to Rohirrim in many matters relating to horses.

If one agrees that Snowmane was not one of the mearas, the question still remains: where are the rest of them? My guess is as follows. It is possible that other mearas existed in Rohan or areas known to the Rohirrim, but that they were all as untamable as was Felaróf originally. Only one of the mearas—their chief—would submit to be ridden by the King of the Mark at a time, and then only after some taming. At the time of the War of the Ring, the previous mearh-mount of the king had died, and Wormtounge had persuaded Théoden, as in much else, that he was too old to try and break a new one. If this is true, it helps explain why Shadowfax finally submitted to Gandalf instead. It also would mean that Shadowfax was a relatively young mearh at the time of the war.

CREATING DETAILED HORSES FOR YOUR GAME

 Stats

Players may wish to use the following stats (a variation of the standard MERP rules) to develop detailed attributes for their characters' horses. The most important detail you should add to your character's horse however, should be a name. I suggest a -10 penalty for riding a horse without a name or any unfamiliar animal. (Yes, I was tempted here to make a pun involving the old song, but resisted.)

Notes

Use the standard MERP stat bonuses.

Strength bonuses may be used to negate weight penalties as normal.

Calculate the speed of the animal as follows:

Extreme Gallop may be used only one period per day regardless, and then only if the animal is whipped or spurred (good riders know that this need not be harshly done). Errych with an intelligence above 90 may reach Extreme Gallop speeds without such goading. [GM Note: Don't let your players get away with using up 99% of their horses' EP and then resting so as not to accrue the penalties. If they try this, give them the full penalty or whatever percentage you feel is appropriate.]

 

Breed Bonuses

The following statistics are concerned only with the typical riding animal listed and do not apply to draft animals of any type, although some of the ponies mentioned could do double duty as pack animals if needed. There are both lighter and heavier breeds of all the animals presented as well as different color variations. For example, I believe in a world with three different types of Hobbits, there are probably at least three different types of Hobbit-ponies. Our world has literally hundreds of different horse and pony breeds, and I encourage readers to develop their own specific strains to fit their characters' needs. If a plausible reason is given for desiring a specific type of animal, you can bet that animal-breeders would have tried to develop a strain to meet that desire if possible.

HORSES*
Breed St Qu Ag Co It Pr Weight
Errych** +10 +15 +10 +10 10 +15 1100 lbs
Pererrych (Númenórean) +5 +10 +5 +10 +10 +10 1200 lbs
Pererrych (Rohirric) +5 +10 +5 +5 +5 +5 1100 lbs
Pererrych (Belfalathren) +5 +0 +5 +5 +0 +10 1400 lbs
Pererrych (Haradic) +0 +10 +5 +0 +0 +0 1000 lbs
Rych

(Easterling)		 +0 +5 +0 +5 +0 +0 900 lbs
Rych

(Eriadorian)		 +5 -5 +0 +5 +0 -5 1100 lbs
*Base Movement Rate: 60'/rnd.

**First and early Second Age errych have a minimum of 75 for all stats. This drops to 65 by the mid-Second Age, and 50 by the late Third Age.

PONIES*
Breed St Qu Ag Co It Pr Weight
Hobbitish +5 -5 +10 +5 +5 -5 500 lbs
Dwarven +15 -15 +10 +10 +0 -10 700 lbs
Eriadorian +10 -10 +5 +10 +0 -5 600 lbs
Rhovanic +10 -10 +10 +5 +5 -5 650 lbs
Mule/hinny** +5 -5 +15 +5 -5 -15 850 lbs
Donkey*** +0 -20 +20 +5 -15 -25 600 lbs
*Base Movement Rate: 50'/rnd. Pound for pound, ponies are stronger than horses, but generally can carry less due to their smaller size. Despite their high Agility, ponies, mules and donkeys have a -25 penalty to jumping. **Base Movement 50'/rnd. May not perform Extreme Gallop.

***Base movement 40'/rnd. May only achieve Walk and Gallop speeds.

DISEASES AND AILMENTS FROM EXHAUSTION OR INJURY
The following is a list of problems a GM may wish to inflict on a player's horse depending on circumstances (e.g., the player fails a maneuver role or runs the horse past its exhaustion). All hoof and leg problems listed will make the horse lame unless it is a very minor case.

DISEASES AND AILMENTS FROM POOR FOOD OR ENVIRONMENT
The following list enumerates potential problems resulting from neglect of a horse's care—poor stable conditions, poor feeding, indiscriminate grazing. I'm not suggesting that each player become an expert in equine care (I consider that part of a character's riding skill bonus), but simply that players pay attention to what their horse may be doing when they are not riding it.

VICES (WHAT A BARGAIN—AND ITS TEETH LOOK GOOD!)
Here is a list of possible behavioral problems (know as "vices") that a horse may have. There is a 5-10% chance, depending on who the seller is, that an animal will have one or more of these vices which can usually be corrected by proper training. Hopefully for the player he or she will not discover the vice at an inopportune time.

QUICK HORSE FACTS THAT EVERY RIDER IN MIDDLE-EARTH SHOULD KNOW

 POSTSCRIPT

One piece of information that was brought to my attention since this article was written was an article in Beyond Bree,25 which reminded me that a reader once questioned Tolkien about the issue of a bit and bridle on Glorfindel's horse (Letters #211). Tolkien changed "bit and bridle" to "headpiece" in later editions, but the stirrups (mentioned a few pages later) remained. Whether this was intentional or an oversight we will never know. Nevertheless, since the stirrups do remain in the book, they must be addressed somehow, and I believe my explanation to be the best resolution of the contradiction. Who knows? Perhaps if I had had the opportunity to write Tolkien he would have agreed!

FOOTNOTES

All books by J.R.R. Tolkien refer to Houghton Mifflin editions: hardback editions for The Hobbit (Hob) Morgoth's Ring (MR) and Peoples of Middle-earth (PoMe) and trade-paperback editions for The Lord of the Rings (LotR) and Unfinished Tales (UT).

1. I am referring here not to the overt actions of Melkor (such as causing dissension among the Noldor or killing the Two Trees, the effects of which were anything but small), but rather the dissemination of Melkor's essence into all matter as described in MR: 400.
2. UT: 169.
3. UT: 170, 278 note 7.
4. It is the generally accepted view today among historians, archaeologists and anthropologists that pastoral economies arose as an epiphenomenon of sedentary agriculture, rather than the reverse [Editor's Note].
5. Although Tolkien does not state anywhere that the Northmen of Rhovanion participated in the War, I find it likely given the near universal scope of that conflict. Such participation would also have laid a foundation for the close relationship between Ehwathrumi and Gondor in later centuries.
6. UT: 213 note 3.
7. LotR I: 275.
8. This possibility is mentioned in current ICE modules (though it is I understand a compromise).
9. PoMe: 303.
10. UT: 235.
11. The retrojection of the Beornings into pre-late Third Age history is also an innovation of the MERP series. In The Hobbit, the Beornings emerge as a new and distinct group only after the Battle of Five Armies (Hob: 248); these, moreover, are probably to be identified with the Woodmen (in LotR, "Men of the Vales of Anduin"). However, the allusive hints about Beorn's own origin do not preclude the interpretation which the MERP series has developed. Bernie, following the nomenclature of earlier modules, has adopted the designation "Beijabar" for this invented group; that name, however, has subsequently been corrected in more recent modules to "Berninga" (the Gothic equivalent to Anglo-Saxon "Beornings"). For simplicity's sake, I have altered all of Bernie's references to read "Beorning" [Editor's Note].
12. Perhaps servants is not strong enough a word, for some treated their animals almost as children.
13. Hob: 128.
14. LotR III: 51.
15. LotR III: 60. Also Karen Wynn Fonstad in her Atlas of Middle-earth has calculated an average speed of 6.7 MPH for the horses of Rohan and 7.0 for the horses of the Rangers (p. 156, 2nd edition).
16. Atlas of Middle-earth p. 159, gives the distance the Rohirrim traveled per day in their approach to Gondor. See UT: 279 note 9 for the speed of a Dúnadan army, and UT: 315 note 36, for the size of the army of Rohan. I also wanted to note that the Rohirric army included "many hundreds of men with spare horses lightly burdened" (LotR III: 76). Although the number of spare horses is not given, it is likely that the Rohirrim used at least one spare horse for each rider in order to ensure they would have fresh mounts when entering battle.
17. LotR II: 42.
18. LotR I: 223.
19. LotR II: 146.
20. LotR III: 346.
21. LotR II: 38, 108.
22. UT: 311.
23. LotR III: 414.
24. LotR II: 202. Even Glorfindel's horse failed this at the Ford of Bruinen. 25. Robert Acker and Nancy Martsch "Differences Between the Ace and Ballantine editions of The Lord of the Rings" (Sept. '96).